[31] Instead of isolating Aktay as was Aybak's intention, the assignment allowed Aktay to impose extortionate taxes in Upper Egypt and provide him the personal funds to finance his patronage of the Bahriyyah. [122], The Mamluks sought to cultivate and utilize Muslim leaders to channel the religious feelings of the sultanate's Muslim subjects in a manner that did not disrupt the sultanate's authority. [178] However, prior to the Mamluks' rise, there was a growing tendency of iqta holders to treat their iqta as personal property, which they passed down to their descendants. Many Bedouin women mourned his death. [98] In that same year, Timur invaded Syria, sacking Aleppo before proceeding to sack Damascus. What was the capital of the Mamluk Sultanate? Lessing Archives. [176], The system largely consisted of land assignments from the state in return for military services. "[155], The Mamluk sultans were products of the military hierarchy, entry into which was virtually restricted to mamluks, i.e. [131] Many Coptic Christians decided to convert to Islam or at least adopt the outward expressions of Muslim faith to protect their employment, avoid jizyah taxation and avoid official measures against them. [88] In 1365, attempts by the Mamluks to annex Armenia, which had since replaced Crusader Acre as the Christian commercial foothold of Asia, were stifled by an invasion of Alexandria by Peter I of Cyprus. [17] To provision his mamluks, as-Salih forcibly seized the iqtaat (fiefs; singular iqta) of his predecessors' emirs. [198] Trade with Iran, India, and China was even more extensive, turning Mamluk cities into centers of both trade and consumption. The latter was killed in a mamluk revolt and was succeeded by his brother al-Muzaffar Hajji, who was also killed in a mamluk revolt in late 1347. [80] This unorthodox move, together with his seclusive and frivolous behavior and his execution of loyal partisans, ended with Ahmad's deposition and replacement by his half-brother as-Salih Ismail in June 1342. [95] The new Egyptian niyabas were Alexandria, Damanhur and Asyut. Seljuk Empire Mamluk Sultanate Delhi Sultanate Geographic Location and Dates they maintained power Social Social classes & social . [181] Land was assessed by the periodic rawk (cadastral survey), which consisted of a survey of land parcels (measured by feddan units), assessment of land quality and the annual estimated tax revenue of the parcels, and classification of a parcel's legal status as waqf (trust) or iqta. Sultanate versus Caliphate, Sultan versus Caliph: What's the difference? The rumor, accentuated by the execution of civilian notables who evacuated Damietta, provoked a mutiny by the garrison of his camp in al-Mansurah, which included numerous Salihi mamluks. 76-80 Seljuk Empire Mamluk Sultanate Delhi Sultanate Geographic Location and Dates they maintained powe r 11 century, Middle east North Africa 1250-1517 South Asia Social Social classes & social hierarchy Who has power in society? While Inal and his close circle of officials were notably less tyrannical and brutal than their predecessors, the transgressions of the julban . [19] The situation was calmed after the intervention of the atabeg al-askar (commander of the military), Fakhr ad-Din ibn Shaykh al-Shuyukh. [34], Meanwhile, the Bahriyya faction in Gaza commanded by Baybars sought to enlist their services with an-Nasir Yusuf. But how did a former class of enslaved people come to the head of the Islamic world? [196] Furthermore, in 1429, he ordered that the spice trade to Europe be conducted through Cairo before goods reached Alexandria, thus attempting to end the direct transportation of spices from the Red Sea to Alexandria. [199] Some art forms also varied in importance over time. [172] The Mamluks used the same currency system as the Ayyubids, which consisted of gold dinars, silver dirhams and copper fulus. [96] Barquq instituted this change as a means to better control the Egyptian countryside from the rising strength of the Arab tribes. [139] Under the third reign of an-Nasir Muhammad in particular, the Bedouin tribes, particularly those of Syria, such as the Al Fadl, were strengthened and integrated into the economy as well. Create flashcards in notes completely automatically. [101] The first expedition involved the sacking of Edessa and the massacre of its Muslim inhabitants in retaliation for the Aq Qoyonlu's raids against the Mamluks' Mesopotamian territories. The Mamlk sultanate was originally established in Egypt but soon came to control Palestine and Syria. [76] Unable to meet the military's need for new mamluks, the sultans often resorted to turning Ilkhanid deserters or prisoners of war into soldiers, sometimes while the war the prisoners were captured in was still ongoing. For example, Mamluk glassware had an influence on the Venetian glass industry. [197], Mamluk decorative artsespecially enameled and gilded glass, inlaid metalwork, woodwork, and textileswere prized around the Mediterranean as well as in Europe, where they had a profound impact on local production. License & Copyright Based on Wikipedia content that has been reviewed, edited, and republished. [148], A consistent accession process occurred with every new Mamluk sultan. [87] To restore discipline and unity within the Mamluk state and military, Yalbugha applied the rigorous educational methods used for mamluks during the reigns of sultans Baybars and Qalawun. The term 'Mamluk Sultanate' is a modern historiographical term. In an event greatly favoring the Mamluks, the Mongol Empire's leader Mongke Khan died in 1259 at the precipice of Hulagu Khan's invasion of Africa. [90] Afterward, he managed to bring to Egypt his father Anas and many of his kinsmen,[90] possibly in an attempt to establish a power base outside of the Mamluk establishment. Emirates NBD. [199] The Mamluks themselves, as former slaves who rose through the ranks by their own efforts, were status-conscious patrons who commissioned luxury objects marked with emblems of their ownership. [20] Opposition among the Salihiyyah to as-Salih rose when the latter ordered the assassination of his brother Abu Bakr al-Adil in 1249, a task that affronted many of the Salihiyyah and by whom was rejected; four of the Salihiyyah ultimately agreed to execute the controversial operation. [120] While the precedent set by the Ayyubids highly influenced the Mamluk state's embrace of Sunni Islam,[121] the circumstances in the Muslim Middle East in the aftermath of the Crusader and Mongol invasions also left Mamluk Egypt as the last major Islamic power able to confront the Crusaders and the Mongols. [4] In addition, the caliph recognized the sultan's authority over Egypt, Syria, Mesopotamia, Diyarbakir, the Hejaz and Yemen and any territory conquered from the Crusaders or Mongols. [156] Besides his khushdashiyyah, the sultan derived power from other emirs, with whom there was constant tension, particularly in times of peace with external enemies. Title Did the Mamluks Have an Environmental Sense? [123] While the Mamluks patronized the Sunni ulama through appointments to government office, they patronized the Sufis by funding zawiyas (Sufi lodges). Original image by Ro4444. They were made of brass or bronze with inlaid decoration, though in the later periods decoration was often engraved rather than inlaid. [30] Aybak moved against the Bahriyyah in 1251 by shutting down their Rawda headquarters in a bid to sap Aktay's power base. As stated previously, the Mamluks spoke Arabic and practiced Islam, but many came from foreign roots, whether from the Turkic tribes or Central Asia, or the Caucuses. Although the Crusade was a catastrophe for the Christian forces, initial differing strategies between the reigning Sultan and Mamluks resulted in the execution of many military commanders. [138], Bedouin tribes served as a reserve force in the Mamluk military. [173] In general, the monetary system during the Mamluk period was highly unstable due to frequent monetary changes enacted by various sultans. Afterward, he purged and/or arrested the Mu'izziyah and any Bahri mamluks he could locate in Egypt in a bid to eliminate dissent towards his rule. The Mamluk Sultanate has been added to your Cart Add a gift receipt for easy returns Have one to sell? [92][93] The rebels took over Syria and headed for Egypt, prompting Barquq to abdicate in favor of as-Salih Hajji. [210][211] Minarets, which were also elaborate, usually consisted of three tiers separated by balconies, with each tier having a different design than the others. [90] Among the senior emirs who rose to prominence under Ali was Barquq, a Circassian mamluk of Yalbugha who was involved in Sha'ban's assassination,[89][90] and Baraka, another of Yalbugha's mamluks. [129], In Syria, the Mamluks uprooted the local Maronite and Greek Orthodox Christians from the coastal areas as a means to prevent their potential contact with European powers. As such it was a fundamental feature of Mamluk society, on the one hand giving way to a military hierarchy that crystallized into an even more developed economic hierarchy and that had substantial economic interests in society at large; on the other hand, it deeply characterized the realm's economic and social development, its agriculture, grain trade, and rural demography in particular. [59] Among these early policies were the elimination of illegal taxes that burdened the merchant community and extensive building and renovation projects for Islam's holiest sites, such as the Prophet's Mosque in Medina, the al-Aqsa Mosque in Jerusalem and the Ibrahimi Mosque in Hebron. Coloured glass had been common in the preceding Ayyubid period, but during the Mamluk period enamel and gilding became the most important techniques of decorating glass. Everything you need for your studies in one place. This work is made available under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International license (CC-BY). [147], The Mamluk sultan was the ultimate government authority, while he delegated power to provincial governors known as nuwwab as-saltana (deputy sultans, sing. [93], Barquq died in 1399 and was succeeded by his eleven-year-old son, an-Nasir Faraj, who was in Damascus at the time. [52] In 1268, the Makurian king, David I, overthrew the Mamluks' vassal and in 1272, raided the Mamluk Red Sea port of Aydhab. [123] Ibn Taymiyyah's doctrines were regarded The first rulers of the sultanate hailed from the mamluk regiments of the Ayyubid sultan as-Salih Ayyub (r.12401249), usurping power from his successor in 1250. Most of the Mamluks, especially in the early years of its class, were ethnic Turks. Egypt and Syria already possessed a rich tradition of glassmaking prior to this period and Damascus was the most important production center during the Mamluk period. [22] However, Turanshah sought to challenge the dominance of the Salihiyyah in the paramilitary apparatus by promoting his Kurdish retinue from Upper Mesopotamia ("al-Jazira" in Arabic) and the Levant as a counterweight to the predominantly Turkic Salihiyyah. [113] Ethnic origin was a key component of an individual mamluk's identity, and ethnic identity manifested itself through given names, dress, access to administrative positions and was indicated by a sultan's nisba. The Mamluk Sultanate ruled Egypt, Syria and the Arabian hinterland along the Red Sea. The Mamluks under Sultan Qutuz and Baybars routed the Mongols in 1260, halting their southward expansion. [216] Some building types which first appeared in the late Mamluk period, such as sabil-kuttabs (a combination of sabil and kuttab) and multi-storied caravanserais (wikalas or khans), actually grew in number during the Ottoman period. In 1260, after a period of confusion following the death of the last Ayyubid, a Qipchaq Turk called Baybars became Sultan. Stop procrastinating with our study reminders. [93] Barquq entered into a brief engagement with Timur at the Euphrates in 1394, but Timur withdrew during that episode. The sultanate then experienced a long period of stability and prosperity during the third reign of al-Nasir Muhammad (r. 12931294, 12991309, 13101341), before giving way to the internal strife characterizing the succession of his sons, when real power was held by senior emirs. It was ruled by a military caste of mamluks (manumitted slave soldiers) headed by the sultan. [141] However, during an-Nasir Muhammad's third reign, the Al Fadl were granted high-quality iqtaat in abundance, strengthening the tribe to become the most powerful among the Bedouin of the Syrian Desert region. The Abbasid caliphs were the nominal sovereigns (figureheads). [28][33] The purge led to a dearth of military support for Aybak, which in turn led to Aybak's recruitment of new supporters from among the army in Egypt and the Turkic Nasiri and Azizi mamluks from Syria, who had defected from their Ayyubid masters, namely an-Nasir Yusuf, and moved to Egypt in 1250. Caliphs, on the other hand, played a more spiritually significant role. [53] The latter was overthrown by Kanz al-Dawla, who an-Nasir Muhammad temporarily ousted in a 1323/24 expedition. [131] By the end of the Mamluk period, the ratio of Muslims to Christians in Egypt may have risen to 10:1. [154] Often, the practical restrictions on a sultan's power came from his own khushdashiyyah,[155] defined by historian Amalia Levanoni as "the fostering of a common bond between mamluks who belonged to the household of a single master and their loyalty towards him. [195] These goods originated in Persia, India, and Southeast Asia and made their way to Europe via the Mamluk ports of Syria and Egypt. [142] Competition over iqtaat and the post of amir al-arab (chief commander of the Bedouin) among the Bedouin tribes of Syria, particularly the Al Fadl, led to conflict and rebellion among the tribes, leading to mass bloodshed in Syria in the aftermath of an-Nasir Muhammad's death. The Mamluks excelled in warfare, forcing the Mongol invasion through the Middle East and into Egypt to a screeching halt; on another occasion, they captured the French king during the 7th Crusade and ransomed him back to his country. [74] The latter situation applied to the sultans Baybars, Qalawun, the latter's son, an-Nasir Muhammad and Barquq, who formally arranged for one or more of their sons to succeed them. [162] As emirs were promoted, the number of soldiers in their corps increased, and when rival emirs challenged each other's authority, they would often utilize their respective forces, leading to major disruptions of civilian life. [157] Another prerogative, at least of the early Bahri sultans, was to import as many mamluks as possible into the sultanate, preferring those who originated from the territories of the Mongols. [45], Through opening diplomatic channels with the Mongols, Baybars also sought to stifle a potential alliance between the Mongols and the Christian powers of Europe, while also sowing divisions between the Mongol Ilkhanate and the Mongol Golden Horde. [35] Aybak was assassinated on 10 April 1257,[35] possibly on the orders of Shajar al-Durr,[36] who was assassinated a week later. Drought's effects on the population slowed the Ottoman Empire's expansion in the 16th century. Source: Ro4444, CC-BY-SA-4.0, Wikimedia Commons. The war started in 1516 which led to the later incorporation of Egypt and its dependencies in the Ottoman Empire, with Mamluk cavalry proving no match for the Ottoman artillery and the janissaries. [71] To avoid the experiences of his previous two reigns where the mamluks of Qalawun and Khalil held sway and periodically assumed the sultanate, an-Nasir Muhammad launched efforts to establish a centralized autocracy. [39] Qutuz sent military reinforcements to his erstwhile enemy an-Nasir Yusuf in Syria, and reconciled with the Bahriyyah, including Baybars, who was allowed to return to Egypt, to face the common Mongol threat. The Mamluk sultans are usually divided into two dynasties, the Bahris (1250-1382), chiefly Turks and Mongols, and the Burjis (1382-1517), chiefly Circassians who were chosen from the garrison of Cairo. Sell on Amazon Other Sellers on Amazon Added Not added Add to Cart View Cart $31.81 & FREE Shipping Sold by: Book Depository US Sold by: Book Depository US (948804 ratings) 91% positive over last 12 months In stock. The Mamluks were Muslim warriors but were not of Arabic descent. Philipp and Haarmann 1998, p. 96. The Mamluks took advantage of their power to become the principal landholders in Egypt. [184], Mamluk Egypt was a major producer of textiles and a supplier of raw materials for Western Europe. Have all your study materials in one place. Either way, the Mamluks were proud of their heritage. [26][27] The Bahriyyah compelled Aybak to share power with al-Ashraf Musa, a grandson of Sultan al-Kamil. those soldiers who were imported while young slaves. [74], The third reign of an-Nasir Muhammad also saw a departure from the traditions of succession and administrative elevation of his predecessors since he observed in his first two reigns that such traditions had been ignored anyway, while sultans were being assassinated and mamluks were abusing other mamluks in bids for power. Jamdariyyah) and Bahri (pl. [169] Mamluk emirs also had their own ustadars. [122], The Mamluks also embraced the various Sufi orders that existed in the sultanate. Secure now against Ismail I, in 1516 he drew together a great army aiming at conquering Egypt, but to obscure the fact he presented the mobilisation of his army as being part of the war against Ismail I. [43] Upon Qutuz's triumphant return to Cairo, he was assassinated in a Bahri plot. [19] As-Salih believed Damietta should not have been evacuated and was rumored to have threatened punitive action against the Damietta garrison. [153], Lesser-ranked Mamluk emirs viewed the sultan more as a peer whom they entrusted with ultimate authority and as a benefactor whom they expected would guarantee their salaries and monopoly on the military. Although not in the same form as under the Sultanate, the Ottoman Empire retained the Mamluks as an Egyptian ruling class and the Mamluks and the Burji family succeeded in regaining much of their influence, but remained vassals of the Ottomans. [126][127] The association of Christians with the Mongols, due to the latter's use of Armenian and Georgian Christian auxiliaries, the attempted alliance between the Mongols and the Crusader powers, and the massacre of Muslim communities and the sparing of Christians in cities captured by the Mongols, may have contributed to rising anti-Christian sentiments in the Mamluk era. Earn points, unlock badges and level up while studying. Influences from the Syrian region, Ilkhanid Iran, and possibly even Venice were evident in these trends. Gender roles and relations/patriarchy . [110] Similar to their Ayyubid predecessors, the Bahri sultans showed particular favoritism towards the Shafi'i madhab, while also promoting the other major Sunni madhabs, namely the Maliki, Hanbali and Hanafi. Crime and Punishment in Industrial Britain, Advantages of North and South in Civil War, African Americans in the Revolutionary War, Civil War Military Strategies of North and South, Environmental Effects of The Columbian Exchange, Native Americans in the Revolutionary War. na'ib as-saltana). On 5 April 1250, covered by the darkness of night, the Crusaders evacuated their camp opposite al-Mansurah and began to flee northward towards Damietta. That year, he managed to dispatch Aktay to Upper Egypt to suppress an Arab uprising. StudySmarter is commited to creating, free, high quality explainations, opening education to all. In 1323, the two parties signed a peace treaty. [172] In Egypt in particular, the Nile River's centralizing influence also contributed to Mamluk centralization over the region. [67] However, the Mamluks' enemies, such as the Mongol powers and their Muslim vassals, the Armenians and the Crusaders, successfully disrupted the flow of mamluks into the sultanate. The Mamluks left behind a fascinating legacy, fraught with controversy, political assassination and factional conflict - the perfect plot for the next blockbuster TV series. [187] Furthermore, the maintenance of the Mamluk army in Syria relied on the state's control over Syrian agricultural revenues. [39] Qutuz then prepared Cairo's defenses to ward off the Mongols' threatened invasion of Egypt, but after hearing news that Hulagu withdrew from Syria to claim the Mongol throne, Qutuz began preparations for the conquest of Syria. Tall, increasingly vertical building meant to dominate city streets within tightening city walls. [17] As-Salih sought to create a paramilitary apparatus in Egypt loyal to himself, and his aggressive recruitment and promotion of mamluks led contemporaries to view Egypt as "Salihi-ridden", according to historian Winslow William Clifford. [203], Mamluk architecture is distinguished in part by the construction of multi-functional buildings whose floor plans became increasingly creative and complex due to the limited available space in the city and the desire to make monuments visually dominant in their urban surroundings. Nonetheless, with rare exception, the Burji sultans were all linked to the regime's founder Barquq through blood or mamluk affiliation. Hulagu Khan, a grandson of Genghis Khan and leader of the Ilkhanate subdivision of the Mongol Empire, was marching through the Middle East. [92] His rule was challenged in Syria in 1389 during a revolt by the Mamluk governor of Malatya, Mintash, and the governor of Aleppo, Yalbugha an-Nasiri, who was a former mamluk of both an-Nasir Hasan and Yalbugha al-Umari. [166] For example, an emir of forty would be given an iqta a third of the size of an emir of one hundred's iqta. [101] Moreover, Barsbay compelled Red Sea traders to offload their goods at the Mamluk-held Hejazi port of Jeddah rather than the Yemeni port of Aden in order to derive the most financial benefit from the Red Sea transit route to Europe. [54] Despite an alliance with the Assassins in 1272, in July 1273, the Mamluks, who by then determined that the Assassins' independence was problematic, wrested control of the Assassins' fortresses in Jabal Ansariyah, including Masyaf. Mamluk terracotta cup from the 14th century. [154] When emirs felt the sultan was not ensuring their benefits, disruptive riots, coup plots or delays to calls for service were all likely scenarios. They are made of engraved brass, with black bitumen filling parts of the surfaces in order to create contrast with the motifs in polished brass. It was ruled by a military caste of mamluks (manumitted slave soldiers) at the head of which was the sultan. However, an-Nasir Muhammad's senior aide, Qawsun, held real power and ultimately imprisoned and executed Abu Bakr and had an-Nasir Muhammad's infant son, al-Ashraf Kujuk, appointed in his stead. Ottoman sultan Selim I captured Cairo on January 20, the center of power transferred then to Constantinople. [29] He served as the principal bulwark against the more junior Bahri and Jamdari elements of the Salihiyyah, and his promotion to atabeg al-askar was met by Bahri rioting in Cairo, the first of many examples of intra-Salihi tensions surrounding Aybak's ascendancy. Baybars ended the Ayyubid and early Mamluk tradition of selecting a Shafi'i scholar as qadi al-qudah (chief judge) and instead had a qadi al-qudah appointed from each of the four madhabs. "[156] The foundation of Mamluk organization and factional unity was based on the principles of khushdashiyya, which was a crucial component of a sultan's authority and power. During the 7th Crusade, the widow Sultaness Shajar al-Durr sought a suitable marriage to consolidate her power. [79] Ahmad relocated to al-Karak and left a deputy to rule on his behalf in Cairo. [88] The rebellious mamluks were supported by Sultan al-Ashraf Sha'ban, who Yalbugha installed in 1363. [148] Cairo remained the capital of the sultanate and its social, economic and administrative center, with the Cairo Citadel serving as the sultan's headquarters. Sign up to highlight and take notes. The halqa regiments declined in the 14th century when professional non-mamluk soldiers generally stopped joining the force. Although he was assassinated years later, the precedent of a Mamluk rule was evident to all. 199 ] Some art forms also varied in importance over time Attribution 4.0 International license ( CC-BY.. State in return for military services example, Mamluk Egypt was a producer! Education to all the last Ayyubid, a Qipchaq Turk called Baybars became.. 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Which Competency Balances Delegation, Empowerment, Trust And Mission Requirements?,
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